Biodiversity conservation in a human world: do successes involve losses?

It's become commonplace to state that the world is in the midst of a mass extinction event. And there is no doubt about the cause. Unlike previous mass extinction events, like the cretaceous extinction event that saw most dinosaurs disappear, the current extinction event is not caused by a geological or astrological event. Rather, the current extinction event is caused by a single species, humans. Through habitat destruction, wildlife harvesting, pollution, and the introduction of pest species to other regions, the current extinction rate is 100 to 1000 times higher than it should normally be. We often think of human legacy in terms of art or architecture, but a permanent scar in the biological record of the Earth is our greatest legacy.

Of course many people and some governments are very concerned about our impact, and have committed to try to conserve elements of the remaining natural world. How best to do this is largely influenced by conservation biology, a field of research and applied management that includes biology, economics, and sociology, amongst others. There are many debates within conservation biology, and a big one is about how much to involve people, and their activities, in conservation areas versus attempting to completely exclude people from protected areas.

Two conservation conversations have explored this dichotomy in meaningful ways. First is a recent paper by Elena Bennett (Bennett 2017), who argues that strategies for environment and conservation protection needs to take a human-first approach and focus on human well-being. The second is a talk I saw from Daniel Janzen the other day. Janzen is a world-renowned ecologist and has dedicated his life to conservation in Costa Rica for the past 30 years. This debate was central to his talk about the conservation successes at the Area de Conservacion Guanacaste (ACG), where Janzen developed and implemented a conservation philosophy that included local people in the managing and research in the conservation area. Before Janzen, the Park relied on the traditional approach of excluding people to protect nature and it was failing. Janzen’s approach has been immensely successful, and the Park is now considered a conservation success story.

People can be convinced to appreciate biodiversity around
-if it provides a benefit. (photo by M. Cadotte)

Including people in nature conservation is bound to have successes. People feel more familiar and involved with nature protection, which gives them a sense of ownership. If people understand the benefits of nature, economic and otherwise, then they will be invested in its protection. It all seems so logical, but as I listened to Janzen’s talk (and read Bennett’s paper), I kept thinking: “would there be any losers under a human-first approach to conservation”. I think the answer is yes, and the reason is that we are prone to use a shifting baseline to evaluate success. Let me explain what I mean.

The human-nature story is one that is about a continual 30,000 year retreat. All of our successes -our population growth, our art, our medicine, have all come at the expense of nature. Anywhere on Earth where there are humans, there are losses. Habitat alteration and destruction, and species extinctions are the defining feature of our presence. This legacy has permanently altered the biology of our planet.

Why is this important? Because we really don’t care. We don’t miss wholly mammoths in northern Europe. We don’t miss giant sloths in California. We don’t miss black bears in downtown Toronto. We don’t miss lions in Cape Town. The definition and acceptance of nature  for most people is not influenced by what is not there, but rather the critters we are familiar with and are willing to accept. Big mammals simply have no place in human dominated landscapes and we don’t bemoan their absences.

Can human-first conservation protect jaguars?
(Photo from wikipedia)

Human-first conservation strategies work simply because we accept a less valuable system as acceptable and perhaps normal because of our shifting baselines. Would a human-first conservation strategy work in Costa Rica’s ACG if there was a huge jaguar population that was attacking livestock? Not likely.

The United States government spends billions on national parks to conserve nature (among other things), but if it was up to ranchers living near Yellowstone, for example, all the top predators will be exterminated. Hunters and ranchers in Germany are similarly up in arms (literally) over the re-appearance of wolves and lynx in restored forests within Germany’s borders. Some there consider the extermination of large predators a commendable feat of an advanced society.

The point is that we like the nature we know, and the nature that is not likely to kill us. People are most often invested, familiar, and willing to conserve nature around them, which already works for them.

Costa Rica’s ACG human-first conservation works in certain contexts. It gets people involved, it protects certain facets of nature, and it has a high likelihood of long-term success. If this is the model for a successful conservation philosophy, then we must accept that not all of nature can be protected. In all likelihood, many large mammals will go extinct in my childrens’ lifetime, regardless of how well we do conservation. So perhaps, moving forward with the human-first strategy is the best option, but a part of me hopes that there is a place for real nature in our world. The rest of me knows that there isn’t.


Bennett, E. M. 2017. Changing the agriculture and environment conversation. Nature Ecology & Evolution 1:0018.

Progress on biodiversity-ecosystem function requires looking back

Williams, L. J., et al. 2017. Spatial complementarity in tree crowns explains overyielding in species mixtures. - Nature Ecology & Evolution 1: 0063.

It seems at times that the focus on whether biodiversity has a positive relationship with ecosystem functioning has been a bit limiting. Questions about the BEF relationships are important, of course, since they support arguments for protecting biodiversity and suggests a cost of failing to do so. But as a hypothesis ('higher diversity is associated with higher functioning'), they can be rather one-dimensional. It's easy to think of situations in which other types of BEF relationships (neutral, negative) exist. So is it enough to ask if positive BEF relationships exist?

It’s nice then that there is increasingly a focus on identifying mechanisms behind BEF relationships, using both theory and empirical research. A new paper along these lines is “Spatial complementarity in tree crowns explains overyielding in species mixtures” from Laura Williams et al. (2017). "Overyielding" is the phenomenon in which greater total biomass is produced in a mixture of species compared to the expectation based on their biomass production in monoculture. Overyielding would suggest a benefit in maintaining polycultures, rather than having monocultures, and is a common response variable in BEF studies.

This study focused on the production of stem biomass in monocultures vs. polycultures of forest trees. Experimental communities of young tree species were planted with orthogonal gradients of species richness and functional richness, allowing the effects of species number and trait diversity to be disentangled. Complementarity in tree canopy structure in these communities may be an important predictor of overyielding in stem biomass. Complementarity among tree crowns (that is, the extent to which they fit together spatially without overlapping, see Fig below) should reflect the ability of a set of species to maximize the efficiency of light usage as it hits the canopy. Such variation in crown canopy shapes among species could lead to a positive effect of having multiple species present in a community. 

Example of crown complementarity.
From Williams et al. 2017.

To test this, the authors estimated crown architecture for each species using traits that reflect crown shape and size. These measures were used to predict the spatial complementarity expected with different combinations of tree species. In addition, a single integrative trait – maximum growth rate – was measured for each species. The authors hypothesized that the variation in growth rate of species in a community would be associated with variation in crown heights and so also a good predictor of overyielding.

They found that crown complementarity occurred in nearly all of the experimental polycultures and on average was 29% greater in mixtures than monocultures. Controlling for the number of species, communities with greater variation in growth rate did in fact have greater crown complementarity, as predicted. Further, higher levels of crown complementarity were strongly associated (R2~0.6) with stem biomass overyielding.

Fig 2&3 from Williams et al (2017). For experimental communities:
a) the relationship between crown complementarity and variation in growth rate.
b) the relationship between crown complementarity and stem biomass overyielding.

These results provide a clear potential mechanism for a positive effect of biodiversity (particularly trait-based variation) in similar forests. (As they state, "We posit that crown complementarity is an important mechanism that may contribute to diversity-enhanced productivity in forests"). Given the importance of the sun as a limiting resource in forests, the finding that mixing species that combining shade intolerant and shade tolerant strategies are more productive (the authors note that "growth rate aligns with shade tolerance and traits indicative of a tree’s resource strategy") is not necessarily surprising. It fits within existing forestry models and practices for mixed stands. This is a reminder that we already understand many of the basic components of positive (and neutral and negative) diversity-functioning relationships. The good news is that ecology has accumulated a large body of literature on the components of overyielding (limiting resources, niche partitioning, evolution of alternate adaptive strategies, constraints on these, the strength of competition, etc). From the literature, we can identify the strongest mechanisms of niche partitioning and identify the contexts in which these are likely to be relevant. For example, sun in forests and canopy complementarity, or water limitation in grasslands and so root complementarity might be a good focal trait. 

Data management for complete beginners

Bill Michener is a longtime advocate of data management and archiving practices for ecologists, and I was lucky to catch him giving talk on the topic this week. It clarified for me the value of formalizing data management plans for institutions and lab groups, but also the gap between recommendations for best practices in data management and the reality in many labs.

Michener started his talk with two contrasting points. First, we are currently deluged by data. There is more data available to scientists now than ever, perhaps 45000 exabytes by 2020. On the other hand, scientific data is constantly lost. The longer since a paper is published, the less likely its data can be recovered (one study he cited showed that data had a half life of 20 years). There are many causes of data loss, some technological, some due to changes in sharing and publishing norms. The rate at which data is lost may be declining though. We're in the middle of a paradigm shift in terms of how scientists see our data. Our vocabulary now includes concepts like 'open access', 'metadata', and 'data sharing'. Many related initiatives (e.g.  GenBank, Dryad, Github, GBIF) are fairly familiar to most ecologists. Journal policies increasingly ask for data to be deposited into publicly available repositories, computer code is increasingly submitted during the review process, and many funding agencies now require statements about data management practices.

This has produced huge changes in typical research workflows over the past 25 years. But data management practices have advanced so quickly there’s a danger that some researchers will begin to feel that it is unobtainable, due to the level of time, expertise, or effort involved. I feel like sometimes data management is presented as a series of unfamiliar tools and platforms (often changing) and this can make it seem hard to opt in. It’s important to emphasize good data management is possible without particular expertise, and in the absence of cutting edge practices and tools. What I liked about Michener's talk is that it presented practices as modular ('if you do nothing else, do this') and as incremental. Further, I think the message was that this paradigm shift is really about moving from a mindset in which data management is done posthoc ('I have a bunch of data, what should I do with it?') to considering how to treat data from the beginning of the research process.

Hierarchy of data management needs.

One you make it to 'Share and archive data', you can follow some of these great references.

Hart EM, Barmby P, LeBauer D, Michonneau F, Mount S, Mulrooney P, et al. (2016) Ten Simple Rules for Digital Data Storage. PLoS Comput Biol 12(10): e1005097. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005097

James A. Mills, et al. Archiving Primary Data: Solutions for Long-Term Studies, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Volume 30, Issue 10, October 2015, Pages 581-589, ISSN 0169-5347.

https://software-carpentry.org//blog/2016/11/reproducibility-reading-list.html (lots of references on reproducibility)

K.A.S. Mislan, Jeffrey M. Heer, Ethan P. White, Elevating The Status of Code in Ecology, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Volume 31, Issue 1, January 2016, Pages 4-7, ISSN 0169-5347.

Thanks to Matthias Grenié for discussion on this topic.

Archiving the genomes of all species

There is so much bad news about global biodiversity, that it is nice to hear about new undertakings and approaches. One of these is the 'Earth BioGenome Project' which proposes to sequence the genomes of the entirety of life on earth. Given that sequencing services have never been more affordable and more available to scientists, without question, though ambitious this is a feasible undertaking. Still, with perhaps 9 million eukaryotes on the planet, a rough prediction suggests it could take 10 years and several billion dollars to achieve.

The cost suggests a certain agony of choice - what is the best use of that amount of money (in the dream world where money can be freely moved between projects)? Direct application to conservation and management activities, or a catalog of diversity which may be the only way to save some of these species? 

Leonard Eisenberg's tree of life (https://www.evogeneao.com).